Introduction and Title
The First Book of Samuel describes the transition of leadership in Israel from judges to kings. Three characters are prominent in the book: Samuel, the last judge and first prophet; Saul, the first king of Israel; and David, the king-elect, anointed but not yet recognized as Saul’s successor.
The books of First and Second Samuel were originally one book in the Hebrew Bible, known as the “Book of Samuel” or simply “Samuel.” This name has been variously translated “The Name of God,” “His Name Is God,” “Heard of God,” and “Asked of God.” The Septuagint divides Samuel into two books even though it is one continuous account. This division artificially breaks up the history of David. The Greek (Septuagint) title is Bibloi Basileion, “Books of Kingdoms,” referring to the later kingdoms of Israel and Judah. First Samuel is called Basileion Alpha, “First Kingdoms.” Second Samuel and First and Second Kings are called “Second, Third, and Fourth Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate originally called the books of Samuel and Kings Libri Regum, “Books of the Kings.” Later the Latin Bible combined the Hebrew and Greek titles for the first of these books, calling it Liber I Samuelis, the “First Book of Samuel,” or simply “First Samuel.”
Author
The author of First and Second Samuel is anonymous, but Jewish talmudic tradition says that it was written by Samuel. Samuel may have written the first portion of the book, but his death recorded in First Samuel 25:1 makes it clear that he did not write all of First and Second Samuel. Samuel did write a book (10:25), and written records were available. As the head of a company of prophets (see 10:5; 19:20), Samuel would be a logical candidate for biblical authorship.
First Chronicles 29:29 refers to “the Book of Samuel the Seer,” “the Book of Nathan the Prophet,” and “the Book of Gad the Seer.” All three men evidently contributed to these two books; and it is very possible that a single compiler, perhaps a member of the prophetic school, used these chronicles to put together the Book of Samuel. This is also suggested by the unity of plan and purpose and by the smooth transitions between sections.
Date and Setting
If Samuel wrote the material in the first twenty-four chapters, he did so soon before his death (c. 1015 B.C.). He was born around 1105 B.C., and ministered as a judge and prophet in Israel between about 1067 and 1015 B.C. The books of Samuel end in the last days of David; so they must have been compiled after 971 B.C. The reference in First Samuel 27:6 to the divided monarchy in which Judah is separate from Israel indicates a compilation date after Solomon’s death in 931 B.C. However, the silence regarding the Assyrian captivity of Israel in 722 B.C. probably means that First Samuel was written before this key event.
First Samuel covers the ninety-four-year period from the birth of Samuel to the death of Saul (c. 1105–1101 B.C.). The Philistines strongly oppress Israel from 1087 B.C. until the battle of Ebenezer in 1047 B.C. (7:10–14). However, even after this time the Philistines exercise military and economic control. They live in the coastal plains; and the hill country in which the Israelites dwell protects them from total conquest by the Philistines.
Theme and Purpose
The books of Samuel give a prophetically oriented history of Israel’s early monarchy. The First of these books picks up the story of Israel left off in Judges 16:31. Samuel followed Samson, and he too had to deal with the Philistines since Samson did not accomplish a permanent victory. First Samuel traces the transition of leadership in Israel from judges to kings, from a theocracy to a monarchy. The monarchy brought greater stability because the people found it easier to follow an earthly king. Samuel was the kingmaker who anointed the first two rulers of the united kingdom. Saul quickly disobeyed God and became a tyrant. David became the first real theocratic king—he allowed God to rule through him.
In their actions during the period of the judges, the people rejected Yahweh as their King. The clamor for an earthly king in First Samuel was the natural outcome of this practical rejection (8:7). God had intended to give Israel a king (see Gen. 49:10; Deut. 17:14–20), but the people insisted on the king of their choice instead of waiting for God’s king. Nevertheless, this book teaches the sovereign control of Yahweh who establishes and removes kings. Saul was rejected by the Lord because he failed to learn the truth that “to obey is better than sacrifice” (15:22). He became characterized by mental imbalance, raging jealousy, foolishness, and immorality. David illustrated the principle that “the LORD does not see as man sees” (16:7). The Lord established the Davidic dynasty because of David’s obedience, wisdom, and dependence on God. Samuel also reveals the critical role of the prophets in their divinely commissioned exhortations to the kings and the people of Israel.
Keys to First Samuel
Key Word: Transition
Key Verses (13:14; 15:22)—“But now your kingdom shall not continue. The LORD has sought for Himself a man after His own heart, and the LORD has commanded him to be commander over His people, because you have not kept what the LORD commanded you” (13:14).
“Then Samuel said: ’Has the LORD as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of the LORD? Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed than the fat of rams.” (15:22).
Key Chapter (15)—First Samuel 15 records the tragic transition of kingship from Saul to David. As in all three changes recorded in First Samuel, God removes His blessing from one and gives it to another because of sin. “Because you have rejected the word of the LORD, He also has rejected you from being king” (15:23).
Christ in First Samuel
Samuel is a type of Christ in that he is a prophet, priest, and judge. Highly revered by the people, he brings in a new age. David is one of the primary Old Testament portrayals of the person of Christ. He is born in Bethlehem, works as a shepherd, and rules as king of Israel. He is the anointed king who becomes the forerunner of the messianic King. His typical messianic psalms are born of his years of rejection and danger (Ps. 22). God enables David, a man “after His own heart” (13:14), to become Israel’s greatest king. The New Testament specifically calls Christ the “seed of David according to the flesh” (Rom. 1:3) and “the Root and the Offspring of David” (Rev. 22:16).
Contribution to the Bible
Historically, First Samuel provides the crucial link from the judges to the monarchy. It is a fast-moving narrative that gives a spiritual perspective on three very different personalities whose lives were interwoven: Samuel, Saul, and David.
This is the first book to use the word Messiah (“anointed,” 2:10). It is also the first to call God the “LORD of hosts” (e.g., 1:3). The well-known words Ichabod (“no glory,” 4:21) and Ebenezer (“stone of help,” 7:12) come from this book. Our Lord alluded to First Samuel on at least two occasions (viz., 21:6 in Matt. 12:3–4 and 16:7 in Luke 16:15).
Survey of First Samuel
First Samuel records the crucial transition from the theocracy under the judges to the monarchy under the kings. The book is built around three key men: Samuel (1–7), Saul (8–31), and David (16–31).
Samuel (1–7).
Samuel’s story begins late in the turbulent time of the judges when Eli is the judge-priest of Israel. The birth of Samuel and his early call by Yahweh are found in chapters 1–3. Because of his responsiveness to God (3:19), he is confirmed as a prophet (3:20–21) at a time when the “word of the LORD was rare in those days; there was no widespread revelation” (3:1).
Corruption at Shiloh by Eli’s notoriously wicked sons leads to Israel’s defeat in the crucial battle with the Philistines (4:1–11). The ark of the covenant, God’s “throne” among the people, is lost to the Philistines; the priesthood is disrupted by the deaths of Eli and his sons; and the glory of God departs from the tabernacle (Ichabod, “glory has departed,” 4:21). Samuel begins to function as the last of the judges and the first in the order of the prophets (Acts 3:24). His prophetic ministry (7:3–17) leads to a revival in Israel, the return of the ark, and the defeat of the Philistines. When Samuel is old and his sons prove to be unjust judges, the people wrongly cry out for a king. They want a visible military and judicial ruler so they can be “like all the nations” (8:5–20).
Saul (8–15)
In their impatient demand for a king, Israel chooses less than God’s best. Their motive (8:5) and criteria (9:2) are wrong. Saul begins well (9–11), but his good characteristics soon degenerate. In spite of Samuel’s solemn prophetic warning (12), Saul and the people begin to act wickedly. Saul presumptuously assumes the role of a priest (2 Chr. 26:18) and offers up sacrifices (13). He makes a foolish vow (14) and disobeys God’s command to destroy the Amalekites (15). Samuel’s powerful words (15:22–23) evoke a pathetic response (15:24–31).
Saul and David (16–31)
When God rejects Saul, He commissions Samuel to anoint David as Israel’s next king. God’s king-elect serves in Saul’s court (16:14–23:29) and defeats the Philistine Goliath (17). Jonathan’s devotion to David leads him to sacrifice the throne (20:30–31) in acknowledgment of David’s divine right to it (18). David becomes a growing threat to the insanely jealous Saul; but he is protected from Saul’s wrath by Jonathan, Michal, and Samuel (19).
Saul’s open rebellion against God is manifested in his refusal to give up what God has said cannot be his. David is protected again by Jonathan from Saul’s murderous intent (20), but Saul becomes more active in his pursuit of David. The future king flees to a Philistine city where he feigns insanity (21), and flees again to Adullam where a band of men forms around him (22).
David continues to escape from the hand of Saul, and on two occasions spares Saul’s life when he has the opportunity to take it (24–26). David again seeks refuge among the Philistines, but is not allowed to fight on their side against Israel. Saul, afraid of impending battle against the Philistines, foolishly consults a medium at Endor to hear the deceased Samuel’s advice (28). The Lord rebukes Saul and pronounces his doom; he and his sons are killed by the Philistines on Mount Gilboa (31).
Wilkinson, B., & Boa, K. (1983). Talk thru the Bible (pp. 71–74). Nashville: T. Nelson.